星空健康频道

2013年5月29日星期三

Ancient plants reawaken: Plants exposed by retreating glaciers regrowing after centuries entombed under ice

La Farge, a researcher in the Faculty of Science, and director and curator of the Cryptogamic Herbarium at the University of Alberta, has overturned a long-held assumption that all of the plant remains exposed by retreating polar glaciers are dead. Previously, any new growth of plants close to the glacier margin was considered the result of rapid colonization by modern plants surrounding the glacier.

Using radiocarbon dating, La Farge and her co-authors confirmed that the plants, which ranged from 400 to 600 years old, were entombed during the Little Ice Age that happened between 1550 and 1850. In the field, La Farge noticed that the subglacial populations were not only intact, but also in pristine condition -- with some suggesting regrowth.

In the lab, La Farge and her master's student Krista Williams selected 24 subglacial samples for culture experiments. Seven of these samples produced 11 cultures that successfully regenerated four species from the original parent material.

La Farge says the regrowth of these Little Ice Age bryophytes (such as mosses and liverworts) expands our understanding of glacier ecosystems as biological reservoirs that are becoming increasingly important with global ice retreat. "We know that bryophytes can remain dormant for many years (for example, in deserts) and then are reactivated, but nobody expected them to rejuvenate after nearly 400 years beneath a glacier.

"These simple, efficient plants, which have been around for more than 400 million years, have evolved a unique biology for optimal resilience," she adds. "Any bryophyte cell can reprogram itself to initiate the development of an entire new plant. This is equivalent to stem cells in faunal systems."

La Farge says the finding amplifies the critical role of bryophytes in polar environments and has implications for all permafrost regions of the globe.

"Bryophytes are extremophiles that can thrive where other plants don't, hence they play a vital role in the establishment, colonization and maintenance of polar ecosystems. This discovery emphasizes the importance of research that helps us understand the natural world, given how little we still know about polar ecosystems -- with applied spinoffs for understanding reclamation that we may never have anticipated."

The research was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

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Researcher builds replica human colon to improve water quality

May 28, 2013 — To better understand how bacteria impact the environment a former University of California, Riverside graduate student spent nearly a year building a system that replicates a human colon, septic tank and groundwater and "fed" the colon three times a day during weeklong experiments to simulate human eating.

Ian Marcus, who recently earned his Ph.D. from the UC Riverside Bourns College of Engineering, said discussion of the research often left people a bit perplexed.

"People would give a kind-of-interested-but-definitely-don't-talk-about-it-during-dinner look because we're literally dealing with crap," Marcus said. "It has got the smell. It has got everything."

The idea for the project came after Marcus noticed that scientists typically study bacteria in an isolated environment under ideal growing conditions. That presents a problem because bacteria typically proliferate in microbial communities with other microorganisms such as archaea, fungi and protozoa.

Marcus set out to solve that problem by creating a simulated environment where the life cycle of bacteria (he used a pathogenic strain of E. coli in these experiments) and the microbial communities they live in can be studied from the human colon to water treatment to groundwater.

In the past, researchers have simulated the gut of humans and synthetic aquatic environments, but no one had combined the two, as far as Marcus can tell.

By comparing his finding with those of researchers who worked with bacteria in an isolated environment, Marcus found that the E. coli strain in the microbial community may be less mobile in aquatic environments and more prone to biofilm that than the isolated strain.

This means that the E. coli would linger longer in the environment, since biofilm provides a refuge for all the microorganisms within it. When the biofilm matures it sends out bacteria to colonize another surface thus the bacteria could survive in the environment for longer periods of time.

"This means that pathogens could potentially linger longer and over a long period of time travel greater distances in the groundwater," Marcus said.

Marcus said his research shows you should study microorganisms as close to possible in their natural habitats.

Marcus, who worked in the lab of Sharon Walker, an associate professor of chemical and environmental engineering, had his findings published in a paper called "Linking Microbial Community Structure to Function in Representative Simulated Systems" in the journal Applied Environmental Microbiology. Co-authors were Walker, and Hailey A. Wilder and Shanin J. Quazi, both former students in Walker's lab.

"It is a pleasure to work with a student who can think outside of the box and bring in fresh ideas on how we can approach our research," Walker said. "Ian's work has provided critical new insight into how microbial communities behave in wastewater treatment and contribute to biological contamination of water, which really changes the paradigm of how we do research and manage our water resources."

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Disappearance of stromatolites, earliest visible manifestation of life: Ancient enigma solved?

The findings, by scientists at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI); Massachusetts Institute of Technology; the University of Connecticut; Harvard Medical School; and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, were published online the week of May 27 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Stromatolites ("layered rocks") are structures made of calcium carbonate and shaped by the actions of photosynthetic cyanobacteria and other microbes that trapped and bound grains of coastal sediment into fine layers. They showed up in great abundance along shorelines all over the world about 3.5 billion years ago.

"Stromatolites were one of the earliest examples of the intimate connection between biology -- living things -- and geology -- the structure of the Earth itself," said WHOI geobiologist Joan Bernhard, lead author of the study.

The growing bacterial community secreted sticky compounds that bound the sediment grains around themselves, creating a mineral "microfabric" that accumulated to become massive formations. Stromatolites dominated the scene for more than two billion years, until late in the Proterozoic Eon.

"Then, around 1 billion years ago, their diversity and their fossil abundance begin to take a nosedive," said Bernhard. All over the globe, over a period of millions of years, the layered formations that had been so abundant and diverse began to disappear. To paleontologists, their loss was almost as dramatic as the extinction of the dinosaurs millions of years later, although not as complete: Living stromatolites can still be found today, in limited and widely scattered locales, as if a few velociraptors still roamed in remote valleys.

While the extinction of the dinosaurs has largely been explained by the impact of a large meteorite, the crash of the stromatolites remains unsolved. "It's one of the major questions in Earth history," said WHOI microbial ecologist Virginia Edgcomb, a co-author on the paper.

Just as puzzling is the sudden appearance in the fossil record of different formations called thrombolites ("clotted stones"). Like stromatolites, thrombolites are produced through the action of microbes on sediment and minerals. Unlike stromatolites, they are clumpy, rather than finely layered.

It's not known whether stromatolites became thrombolites, or whether thrombolites arose independently of the decline in strombolites. Hypotheses proposed to explain both include changes in ocean chemistry and the appearance of multicellular life forms that might have preyed on the microbes responsible for their structure.

Bernhard and Edgcomb thought foraminifera might have played a role. Foraminifera (or "forams," for short) are protists, the kingdom that includes amoeba, ciliates, and other groups formerly referred to as "protozoa." They are abundant in modern-day oceanic sediments, where they use numerous slender projections called pseudopods to engulf prey, to move, and to continually explore their immediate environment. Despite their known ability to disturb modern sediments, their possible role in the loss of stromatolites and appearance of thrombolites had never been considered.

The researchers examined modern stromatolites and thrombolites from Highborne Cay in the Bahamas for the presence of foraminifera. Using microscopic and rRNA sequencing techniques, they found forams in both kinds of structures. Thrombolites were home to a greater diversity of foraminifera and were especially rich in forams that secrete an organic sheath around themselves. These "thecate" foraminifera were probably the first kinds of forams to evolve, not long (in geologic terms) before stromatolites began to decline.

"The timing of their appearance corresponds with the decline of layered stromatolites and the appearance of thrombolites in the fossil record," said Edgcomb. "That lends support to the idea that it could have been forams that drove their evolution."

Next, Bernhard, Edgcomb, and postdoctoral investigator Anna McIntyre-Wressnig created an experimental scenario that mimicked what might have happened a billion years ago.

"No one will ever be able to re-create the Proterozoic exactly, because life has evolved since then, but you do the best you can," Edgcomb said.

They started with chunks of modern-day stromatolites collected at Highborne Cay, and seeded them with foraminifera found in modern-day thrombolites. Then they waited to see what effect, if any, the added forams had on the stromatolites.

After about six months, the finely layered arrangement characteristic of stromatolites had changed to a jumbled arrangement more like that of thrombolites. Even their fine structure, as revealed by CAT scans, resembled that of thrombolites collected from the wild. "The forams obliterated the microfabric," said Bernhard.

That result was intriguing, but it did not prove that the changes in the structure were due to the activities of the foraminifera. Just being brought into the lab might have caused the changes. But the researchers included a control in their experiment: They seeded foraminifera onto freshly-collected stromatolites as before, but also treated them with colchicine, a drug that prevented them from sending out pseudopods. "They're held hostage," said Bernhard. "They're in there, but they can't eat, they can't move."

After about six months, the foraminifera were still present and alive -- but the rock's structure had not become more clotted like a thrombolite. It was still layered.

The researchers concluded that active foraminifera can reshape the fabric of stromatolites and could have instigated the loss of those formations and the appearance of thrombolites.

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HiWave spinoff to develop new haptics, embedded audio

Led by HiWave's former CEO and CTO, James Lewis and Chris Travis, start-up Redux Labs has been spun out to advance its Surface Sensation technology for third generation haptic and embedded audio technology.

The company will deliver a range of haptic/touch and audio transducers, electronic control modules and chipsets, evaluation platforms and bespoke system development for multiple market sectors.

Redux’s Surface Sensation use patented techniques that precisely control bending sub-sonic audio waves across a screen to deliver 3D Haptics functionality. The technology’s configurability allows OEM product developers to accurately mimic the tactile and acoustic sensations of real-world user inputs such as sliders or a specific button presses on a flat panel such as a display. For example, users could discern the separate keys on a tablet keyboard, or drivers could locate and operate touch panel switches in vehicles without being visually distracted.

These haptic effects are localised to the point of touch enabling an effective multi-touch environment where the tactile sensation is only felt by the finger pressing the key. The same transducers can also cover the audible spectrum to deliver audio cues, messages and alerts from the surface being touched.

By applying these same techniques to audible frequencies, Redux has also developed products that turn a screen or panel into a high quality, forward facing loud speaker, delivering crisp and clear full-range audio directly to the listener.

Surface Sensation is being targeted at flat-screen TVs, laptops, phones and tablet PCs, in which it is expected to replace internal micro speakers. The technology also delivers top quality audio and compelling haptics from other material surfaces including metal, plastics and composites.

James Lewis, Redux CEO said: “Redux will focus on advancing and commercialising haptic and audio solutions, and to develop ground breaking technology that redefines the user experience in an increasingly touch-display oriented world.”

Visit Redux Laboratories at www.reduxst.com

This article originally appeared on EE Times Europe.

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Dealing with 'crap' to improve water quality

Ian Marcus, who recently earned his Ph.D. from the UC Riverside Bourns College of Engineering, said discussion of the research often left people a bit perplexed.

"People would give a kind-of-interested-but-definitely-don't-talk-about-it-during-dinner look because we're literally dealing with crap," Marcus said. "It has got the smell. It has got everything."

In the past, researchers have simulated the gut of humans and synthetic aquatic environments, but no one had combined the two, as far as Marcus can tell.

"This means that pathogens could potentially linger longer and over a long period of time travel greater distances in the groundwater," Marcus said.

Marcus said his research shows you should study microorganisms as close to possible in their natural habitats.

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Slideshow: Ethernet yesterday, today and tomorrow

MOUNTAIN VIEW, Calif. – An event celebrating the 40th anniversary of Ethernet here drew pioneers with both war stories and poems from its past as well as practitioners and visionaries talking about the present and future of networking.

The event was timed to coincide with a 1973 memo Bob Metcalfe wrote at Xerox PARC that first described and named the technology. After Metcalfe sketched out his story in a keynote, the panel of pioneers below came on stage to fill in some of the details.

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Scientists find possible solution to an ancient enigma

May 28, 2013 — The widespread disappearance of stromatolites, the earliest visible manifestation of life on Earth, may have been driven by single-celled organisms called foraminifera.

Next, Bernhard, Edgcomb, and postdoctoral investigator Anna McIntyre-Wressnig created an experimental scenario that mimicked what might have happened a billion years ago.

"No one will ever be able to re-create the Proterozoic exactly, because life has evolved since then, but you do the best you can," Edgcomb said.

After about six months, the foraminifera were still present and alive -- but the rock's structure had not become more clotted like a thrombolite. It was still layered.

The researchers concluded that active foraminifera can reshape the fabric of stromatolites and could have instigated the loss of those formations and the appearance of thrombolites.

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Scientists develop CO2 sequestration technique

May 28, 2013 — Lawrence Livermore scientists have discovered and demonstrated a new technique to remove and store atmospheric carbon dioxide while generating carbon-negative hydrogen and producing alkalinity, which can be used to offset ocean acidification.

The team demonstrated, at a laboratory scale, a system that uses the acidity normally produced in saline water electrolysis to accelerate silicate mineral dissolution while producing hydrogen fuel and other gases. The resulting electrolyte solution was shown to be significantly elevated in hydroxide concentration that in turn proved strongly absorptive and retentive of atmospheric CO₂.

Further, the researchers suggest that the carbonate and bicarbonate produced in the process could be used to mitigate ongoing ocean acidification, similar to how an Alka Seltzer neutralizes excess acid in the stomach.

"We not only found a way to remove and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere while producing valuable H2, we also suggest that we can help save marine ecosystems with this new technique," said Greg Rau, an LLNL visiting scientist, senior scientist at UC Santa Cruz and lead author of a paper appearing this week (May 27) in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. When carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, a significant fraction is passively taken up by the ocean forming carbonic acid that makes the ocean more acidic. This acidification has been shown to be harmful to many species of marine life, especially corals and shellfish. By the middle of this century, the globe will likely warm by at least 2 degrees Celsius and the oceans will experience a more than 60 percent increase in acidity relative to pre-industrial levels. The alkaline solution generated by the new process could be added to the ocean to help neutralize this acid and help offset its effects on marine biota. However, further research is needed, the authors said.

"When powered by renewable electricity and consuming globally abundant minerals and saline solutions, such systems at scale might provide a relatively efficient, high-capacity means to consume and store excess atmospheric CO₂ as environmentally beneficial seawater bicarbonate or carbonate," Rau said. "But the process also would produce a carbon-negative 'super green' fuel or chemical feedstock in the form of hydrogen."

Most previously described chemical methods of atmospheric carbon dioxide capture and storage are costly, using thermal/mechanical procedures to concentrate molecular CO₂ from the air while recycling reagents, a process that is cumbersome, inefficient and expensive.

"Our process avoids most of these issues by not requiring CO₂ to be concentrated from air and stored in a molecular form, pointing the way to more cost-effective, environmentally beneficial, and safer air CO₂ management with added benefits of renewable hydrogen fuel production and ocean alkalinity addition," Rau said.

The team concluded that further research is needed to determine optimum designs and operating procedures, cost-effectiveness, and the net environmental impact/benefit of electrochemically mediated air CO₂ capture and H2 production using base minerals.

Other Livermore researchers include Susan Carroll, William Bourcier, Michael Singleton, Megan Smith and Roger Aines.

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MOST Forum sketches 5-Gbps future

At the recent MOST Forum in Esslingen near Stuttgart (Germany), experts discussed the presence and future of the MOST data bus used in automotive environments. Against the background of the AVB/Ethernet camp seemingly having gained ground recently, the MOST proponents mulled the specifications of the next MOST bus generation MOST bus. Key parameters for the 5Gbps optical data bus already take shape.

In a joint presentation of Daimler and the FZI research centre, Wolfgang Franz from Daimler and compared AVB and the current MOST generation, MOST 150. While the comparison covered many aspects, it boiled down to the deterministic nature of the MOST system versus the packet-based and thus not entirely deterministic behaviour of Ethernet-based AVB. Due to its deterministic nature, the MOST system offers better quality-of-service, concluded Franz. "Today, there is no better alternative to MOST150", he said. The expert however conceded that flexible topology options are needed to remain competitive.

This is something the next MOST generation will achieve. Besides legacy channels for today's MOST 150, MOST nG will offer enhancements to the current ring architecture in that will be possible to add elements characterized by a bus or star topology. The strong market position of AVB will it also make necessary to ensure maximum interoperability.

At the event the MOST group also introduced a number of enhancements to the existing MOST universe, including a HDCP scheme for the secure transmission of HDMO video data over MOST. This allows a MOST network to move, for example, HDMI content with the required degree of content protection. In this context, the MOST Cooperation has optimized the network for high-quality video streaming.

Currently, MOST150 enables direct isochronous transport of, among others, MPEG video streams without bit-stuffing or transcoding. Now, the MOST standard supports approved content protection schemes for both Digital Transmission Content Protection (DTCP) and HDCP, thus enabling the digital transmission of DVD audio and video, HD-DVD, Blu-ray and HDMI content.

DTCP is used for the networked distribution of protected content and has been approved for MOST for many years. However, HDCP is used for a more direct point-to-point connection between the output of a data source and a renderer. HDMI requires HDCP protection. Data cannot be extracted from an HDCP system and moved with a different protection scheme. With this new specification, the integration of HDMI applications into vehicles is no longer an issue. As with MOST25 and MOST50, application developers can take advantage of secure pipes for transferring sensitive content.

In addition, the MOST group introduced a feature it called Remote Control as an enhancement to the MOST specs. It allows the reduction of the number of Microcontrollers and amount of memory in small and mid-size systems by obsoleting them in peripheral nodes such as displays, cameras, Amplifiers and the like. Instead of having a Microcontroller in each node, the other nodes can be controlled remotely by a central Microcontroller – for example, the one in the head unit. Leaving out the other Microcontrollers and memory can drive system cost down significantly.

Performing all control centrally in the head unit also simplifies the development process considerably, as only one piece of software needs to be developed. Amplifiers and displays run without a local Microcontroller and without local software.

Typical examples for peripheral devices are cameras and rear seat entertainment devices including auxiliary I/Os, displays, etc. At the MOST Forum, the feature was shown in a demo that connects a head unit with several displays and an amplifier over MOST50 with unshielded twisted pair (UTP) copper wire as well as over MOST150 with coaxial cable. The whole system only gets by with just one microcontroller.

This article originally appeared on EE Times Europe.

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Soda and illegal drugs cause similar damage to teeth: Acids erode enamel

May 28, 2013 — Addicted to soda? You may be shocked to learn that drinking large quantities of your favorite carbonated soda could be as damaging to your teeth as methamphetamine and crack cocaine use. The consumption of illegal drugs and abusive intake of soda can cause similar damage to your mouth through the process of tooth erosion, according to a case study published in the March/April 2013 issue of General Dentistry.

Tooth erosion occurs when acid wears away tooth enamel, which is the glossy, protective outside layer of the tooth. Without the protection of enamel, teeth are more susceptible to developing cavities, as well as becoming sensitive, cracked, and discolored.

The General Dentistry case study compared the damage in three individuals' mouths -- an admitted user of methamphetamine, a previous longtime user of cocaine, and an excessive diet soda drinker. Each participant admitted to having poor oral hygiene and not visiting a dentist on a regular basis. Researchers found the same type and severity of damage from tooth erosion in each participant's mouth.

"Each person experienced severe tooth erosion caused by the high acid levels present in their 'drug' of choice -- meth, crack, or soda," says Mohamed A. Bassiouny, DMD, MSc, PhD, lead author of the study.

"The citric acid present in both regular and diet soda is known to have a high potential for causing tooth erosion," says Dr. Bassiouny.

Similar to citric acid, the ingredients used in preparing methamphetamine can include extremely corrosive materials, such as battery acid, lantern fuel, and drain cleaner. Crack cocaine is highly acidic in nature, as well.

The individual who abused soda consumed 2 liters of diet soda daily for three to five years. Says Dr. Bassiouny, "The striking similarities found in this study should be a wake-up call to consumers who think that soda -- even diet soda -- is not harmful to their oral health."

AGD Spokesperson Eugene Antenucci, DDS, FAGD, recommends that his patients minimize their intake of soda and drink more water. Additionally, he advises them to either chew sugar-free gum or rinse the mouth with water following consumption of soda. "Both tactics increase saliva flow, which naturally helps to return the acidity levels in the mouth to normal," he says.

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